Geo-Spatial Optimization and First–Last Mile Accessibility for Sustainable Urban Mobility in Bangkok, Thailand

Urban mobility in Bangkok is constrained by congestion, modal fragmentation, and gaps in First and Last Mile (FLM) access. This study develops a GIS-based framework that combines maximal-coverage location allocation with post-optimization accessibility diag-nostics to inform intermodal hub siting. The network model compares one-, three-, and five-hub configurations using a 20 min coverage standard, and we conduct sensitivity tests at 15 and 25 min to assess robustness. Cumulative isochrones and qualitative overlays on BTS, MRT, SRT, Airport Rail Link, and principal water routes are used to interpret spatial balance, peripheral reach, and multimodal alignment. In the one-hub scenario, the model selects Pathum Wan as the optimal central node. Transitioning to a small multi-hub network improves geographic balance and reduces reliance on the urban core. The three-hub arrangement strengthens north–south accessibility but leaves the west bank comparatively underserved. The five-hub configuration is the most spatially balanced and network-consistent option, bridging the west bank and reinforcing rail interchange corri-dors while aligning proposed hubs with existing high-capacity lines and waterway anchors.
ethodologically, the contribution is a transparent workflow that pairs coverage-based optimization with isochrone interpretation; substantively, the findings support decentral-ized, polycentric hub development as a practical pathway to enhance FLM connectivity within Bangkok’s current network structure. Key limitations include reliance on resident population weights that exclude floating or temporary populations, use of typical network conditions for travel times, a finite pre-screened candidate set, and the absence of explicit route choice and land-use intensity in the present phase.